Emotional design of pedagogical agents: the influence of enthusiasm and model-observer similarity

Pedagogical agents were found to enhance learning but studies on the emotional effects of such agents are still missing. While first results show that pedagogical agents with an emotionally positive design might especially foster learning, these findings might depend on the gender of the agent and the learner. This study investigated whether emotional expressions performed by an on-screen instructor were able to increase learning outcomes while considering differences the gender of the agent and the learner. In a 2 (neutral vs. enthusiastic expressions) × 2 (female vs. male agent) between-subject design with additional consideration of the gender of the learner, data of 129 participants was collected. Results revealed that the manipulation of enthusiasm lead to higher perceptions of positive emotions. In addition, a pedagogical agent who performed enthusiastic expressions led to a higher retention but not transfer performance. In terms of the gender of the agent and the learner, male learners retained knowledge better when they watched the agent performing enthusiastic expression irrespective of the persona gender. Female learners, however, retained knowledge only better when a female agent performed enthusiastic expressions. Results are discussed in the light of the positivity principle, model-observer similarity hypotheses and current theories on social cues in multimedia learning

Parasocial Learning - The Impacts of Social Entities in Learning with Educational Videos

In der vorliegenden Synopse werden drei veröffentliche Publikationen gebündelt. Die Experimente tragen zur aktuellen wissenschaftlichen Diskussion über die positiven oder negativen Auswirkungen sozialer Entitäten und sozialer Hinweisreize in digitalen Lernmedien bei. Zunächst werden die theoretischen Grundlagen zusammengefasst. Weiterhin werden die Methoden, die zentralen Ergebnisse und auch die Implikationen und Limitationen diskutiert. Die bisherige und vor allem aktuelle Literatur zu diesem Forschungsschwerpunkt hat inkonsistente Ergebnisse hervorgebracht (z.B., Dinçer & Doğanay, 2017; Mayer & DaPra, 2012; Stull et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018; Wilson, 2018). Klassische kognitive Lerntheorien wie die Cognitive Load Theory (CLT; Sweller, 1994; Kalyuga, & Singh, 2016) und die Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer, 2014a) postulieren einen negativen Einfluss zusätzlich implementierter sozialer Entitäten auf Lernprozesse. Zusätzliches visuelles Material muss zwangsläufig zusätzlich zu dem eigentlichen Lernmaterial verarbeitet werden, wodurch eine kognitive Überlastung resultieren kann (Sweller et al., 2011). Soziale Entitäten wirken somit tendenziell ablenkend und sollten nicht implementiert werden. Andere Theorien, wie die Social Agency Theory (Mayer et al., 2003) oder die Cognitive-Affective-Social Theory of Learning with Media (CASTLM; Schneider et al., 2018b) postulieren im Gegensatz positive Einflüsse sozialer Entitäten und Hinweiszeichen auf Lernprozesse. Verfügbare kognitive Ressourcen werden nicht automatisch zur Schemakonstruktion genutzt (Huk & Ludwigs, 2009). Stattdessen aktivieren erst affektive, motivationale und auch soziale Prozesse diese Ressourcen. Soziale Entitäten können somit lernförderlich implementiert werden, da durch Prozesse der sozialen Identifikation, parasozialen Kommunikation sowie der affektiven und motivationalen Stimulation, Lernprozesse positiv beeinflusst werden können. Trotz dieser inkonsistenten Befundlage sind soziale Entitäten in zahlreichen Lernmedien integriert. Sichtbare Dozierende befinden sich in vielen Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs; z.B., Hernandez et al., 2013). Zusätzlich zu Lehrvideos sind soziale Entitäten, wie beispielsweise pädagogische Agenten in interaktiven Lernmedien enthalten (Lin et al., 2013). Neben vollständigen Figuren, sind simplere soziale Hinweiszeichen, wie beispielsweise sichtbare Hände vor allem in Demonstrationsvideos integriert (Fiorella et al., 2017). Neben den empirischen Inkonsistenten besteht somit allerdings eine große praktische Relevanz. Mit experimentellen Untersuchungen muss der Forschungsschwerpunkt aufgegriffen und weiter ausdifferenziert werden. Die inkludierten quantitativ-experimentellen Studien werden in Tabelle 1 zusammengefasst. Im Weiteren wird die Methodik der Untersuchungen kurz zusammengefasst. Hierzu werden Probanden, Designs der Studien, Materialen und Messverfahren der abhängigen Variablen skizziert. Wie auch bei den anschließenden Ergebnissen ist die Beschreibung stark komprimiert, um Redundanzen mit den enthaltenen Artikeln zu vermeiden. So werden in der Synopse jene relevanten Kernergebnisse präsentiert, welche später im Fokus der Diskussion stehen. Neben Lernergebnissen werden hierbei auch kognitive, soziale und affektive Variablen untersucht, um einen detaillierten Einblick in den Lernprozess zu erlangen. Daraus leiten sich die folgenden Implikationen, Limitation und zukünftigen Forschungsprozesse ab. Es konnte experimentell festgestellt werden, dass durch gezielte Veränderungen des Designs, der Präsentation oder des Verhaltens von sozialen Entitäten Lernprozesse gefördert werden können. Dies spiegelt sich nicht nur in den Lernergebnissen wieder, auch Prozessvariablen wie bestimmte Facetten der parasozialen Interaktion konnten gezielt beeinflusst werden. Somit konnten Grundannahmen und Implikationen der Social Agency Theory und CASTLM experimentell gestützt werden. Die Wirkmechanismen sozialer Hinweisreize in Instruktionsvideos konnten herausgearbeitet werden und somit wurde durch theoriegeleitete experimentelle Methodik ein essentieller Beitrag zur gegenwärtigen Diskussion bezüglich sozialer Entitäten in multimedialen Lernumgebungen erbracht. Darüber hinaus können aus den Untersuchungen unmittelbare praktische Implikationen zur Gestaltung sozialer Entitäten abgeleitet werden. Die vorliegende Synopse zielte darauf ab zu untersuchen, wie soziale Entitäten möglichst effektiv in Lernumgebungen integriert werden können. Sie untersucht allerdings nicht ob eine grundlegende Integration sinnvoll ist, da keine Kontrollgruppen ohne Entitäten untersucht wurden. Diese bisherige Einschränkung ist eine Forschungsherausforderung gegenwärtiger und zukünftiger Projekte des Autors. Weiterhin sind die einbezogenen Studien der Synopse Grundlage weiterer Forschungsprojekte zu Effekten von Perspektive, Stimme und Verhaltensweisen von Personen und pädagogischen Agenten in Lehr-/Lernszenarios

Successful learning with whiteboard animations – a question of their procedural character or narrative embedding?

Although whiteboard animations are increasingly used for educational purposes, there is little empirical evidence as to why such animations can enhance learning. To specify essential elements, their dynamic visual presentation, as well as their narrative embedding, were found to be theortically important. In a first Experiment (N = 133) with a 2 (presentation mode: static pictures vs. progressive drawing) x 2 (narrative context: with vs. without a narrative) between-subject factorial design, motivational, cognitive, affective variables, as well as learning outcomes, of secondary school students were measured. Results revealed that progressive drawing, as well as a narrative context, are mostly associated with an increase in learning-relevant variables. In a second experiment with the same sample and the same experimental design but a different whiteboard animation, results from Experiment 1 generalize to another learning content. Again, a progressive drawing, as well as a narrative context within whiteboard animation, fostered learning relevant variables as well as learning outcomes. Results are discussed considering the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, the contiguity effect as well as the instructional design theory of anchored instruction

The effect of microlevel and macrolevel signaling on learning with 360° videos

The application of 360° videos raised the attention of educators and researchers, as it appears to be an approachable option to mediate complete environments in educational settings. However, challenges emerge from the perspective of educational psychology. Learning irrelevant cognitive strains might be imposed because it is necessary to navigate through spherical material. However, these potential downsides could be compensated for using signaling techniques. In a two (macrolevel vs. no macrolevel signaling) × two (microlevel vs. no microlevel signaling) factorial between‐subjects design plus control group, 215 fifth‐and sixth‐grade students will watch a 360° video about visual and behavioral characteristics of animals. Learning outcomes, cognitive load, disorientation, and presence will be investigated. It is expected that macrolevel signaling will enhance learning and presence and reduce cognitive load and disorientation. Microlevel signaling will have comparable advantages, but these effects will be more pronounced when macrolevel signaling is implemented

The Cognitive-Affective-Social Theory of Learning in digital Environments (CASTLE)

For a long time, research on individuals learning in digital environments was primarily based on cognitive-oriented theories. This paper aims at providing evidence that social processes affect individual learning with digital materials. Based on these theories and empirical results, a social-processes-augmented theory is suggested: the Cognitive-Affective-Social Theory of Learning in digital Environments (CASTLE). This CASTLE postulates that social cues in digital materials activate social schemata in learners leading to enhanced (para-)social, motivational, emotional, and metacognitive processes. To substantiate this theory, socio-cognitive theories are used, which predict social influences on learning with digital materials. Besides, previous empirical findings are presented assuming that with a rising number of social cues in digital materials, the influence of social processes increases. Finally, consequences regarding the design of digital learning media are discussed

Development and validation of a theory-based questionnaire to measure different types of cognitive load

According to cognitive load theory, learning can only be successful when instructional materials and procedures are designed in accordance with human cognitive architecture. In this context, one of the biggest challenges is the accurate measurement of the different cognitive load types as these are associated with various activities during learning. Building on psychometric limitations of currently available questionnaires, a new instrument for measuring the three types of cognitive load—intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load—is developed and validated relying on a set of five empirical studies. In Study 1, a principal component analysis revealed a three-component model which was subsequently confirmed using a confirmatory factor analysis (Study 2). Finally, across three experiments (Studies 3–5), the questionnaire was shown to be sensitive to changes in cognitive load supporting its predictive validity. The quality of the cognitive load questionnaire was underlined by satisfactory internal consistencies across all studies. In sum, the proposed questionnaire can be used in experimental settings to measure the different types of cognitive load in a valid and reliable manner. The construction and validation process of the questionnaire has also shown that the construct germane cognitive load remains controversial concerning its measurement and theoretical embedding in cognitive load theory

The instructor presence effect and its moderators in instructional video: a series of meta-analyses

Researchers disagree on the extent to which social cues in instructional videos influence learning and learning-relevant outcomes and processes. The instructor presence effect states that visible instructors in instructional videos lead to increased social presence and higher scores in subjective ratings like motivation, social presence, or affect, but do not improve learning outcomes. In contrast, the Cognitive-Affective-Social Theory of Learning in digital Environments outlines how social cues not only enhance social, emotional, and motivational processes, but they also potentially promote learning outcomes. We conducted a series of meta-analyses to explore the effects of instructor presence in instructional videos on retention, transfer, social presence, motivation, cognitive load, affect, and visual dwell time. The meta-analyses include 35 studies, which contained 46 pair-wise comparisons and 6339 participants. Results revealed a small, statistically significant positive effect of including a visual instructor on retention outcomes, but no significant effect on transfer performance. A visible instructor also significantly enhanced social presence, affective, and motivational ratings. Furthermore, we found that a visible instructor significantly reduced dwell time on relevant visual material but also reduced subjective perception of extraneous cognitive load. Significant moderator effects could be found regarding prior knowledge, the instructional domain as well as the size of the instructor

Improving e-learning websites: the role of menu depth and metacognitive support

Introduction: Results from experimental research in instructional psychology imply that a deep menu structure of a e-learning website may provide useful segmentation. However, menu depth also increases the need for navigation and thus, might have impairing eects on learning. Furthermore, instructional support can be provided by including a checklist, to ensure that learners reflect on their study progress. The study aimed at investigating which menu structure is beneficial for e-learning websites and whether a checklist could compensate the negative effects of an unfavorable menu structure. Methods: Therefore, in an online experiment, we let 101 students learn facts about rocks from an e-learning website with either a deep or a flat menu structure. We further manipulated whether metacognitive support through a checklist was provided or not. Learning outcomes, cognitive load, metacognitive factors as well as learning time were measured. Results: Results show no main eects of the menu depth or the presence of a checklist on retention and transfer performance. Learning achievements in percent for retention were 37.31 (deep menu/checklist), 31.10 (deep menu/no checklist), 36.07 (flat menu/checklist), 38.13 (flat menu, no checklist) and for transfer were 35.19 (deep menu/checklist), 34.40 (deep menu/no checklist), 37.78 (flat menu/checklist), 33.23 (flat menu, no checklist). Yet, there are hints that the deeper menu structure had a negative eect on learning processes: The deep menu structure led to an enhanced extraneous cognitive load (ECL) and reduced learning efficiency. However, providing a checklist had beneficial eects mainly when learning with a deep menu structure but not overall. Unexpectedly, the presence of the checklist did not influence metacognitive measures. Discussion: Our study suggests that possible costs of a deep menu structure should be considered when designing instructional checklists. However, the study also provides a way in which these costs can be compensated, which is by using a checklist. Implications for instructional research and e-learning are discussed